Senin, 17 Oktober 2011

Translation Article 1


MODEL DAN PRINSIP-PRINSIP PENERJEMAHAN IDIOM DAN
GAYA BAHASA DARI BAHASA INGGRIS KE BAHASA INDONESIA

Dr. Rudi Hartono, M.Pd.
Universitas Negeri Semarang
rudi_fbsunnes@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

Translating idioms and figurative languages is more difficult than translating ordinary expressions. Novel translators usually have problems in translating those aspects because they should reproduce in the target language (TL) the closest natural equivalence of the source language (ST) message, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style accepted socio-culturally. Idioms and figurative languages are sometimes not translated into the acceptable ones in the target language. The readers are often confused on what they are reading because expressions are not understandable. The solution of those problems is to provide a model of translating idioms and figurative languages. The model that is designed here to produce high quality of translation product is Tripartite Cycle Model.  
Key words: translation, novel, metaphors, similes, idiomatic expressions, ST (Source Language), TL (Target Language), Tripartite Cycle Model

Pendahuluan
Saat ini banyak karya sastra dunia berupa drama, novel dan puisi telah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia. Karya-karya terjemahan itu jauh melampaui jumlah karya asli pengarang Indonesia. Namun apakah aspek kuantitas ini juga disertai kualitas yang memadai? Kita tahu bahwa kualitas terjemahan di Indonesia sering digugat. Memang tidak sedikit karya terjemahan di Indonesia yang membuat pembacanya berkerut kening karena ia harus mereka-reka sendiri apa gerangan maksud tulisan di hadapannya. Kadang-kadang suatu naskah terjemahan baru dapat dipahami apabila kita membaca naskah aslinya (Setiadi dalam Taryadi, 2007).
Novel, sebagai bentuk karya sastra yang lengkap dan luas, banyak diterjemahkan ke dalam berbagai bahasa. Menerjemahkan novel tampaknya tidak semudah menerjemahkan teks biasa. Banyak penerjemah novel menghadapi kesulitan pada saat menerjemahkannya. Kesulitan-kesulitan tersebut meliputi berbagai macam aspek, di antaranya aspek linguistik, aspek budaya dan aspek sastra. Hal ini sejalan dengan pendapat Robinson (1977) dan Newmark (1988).
Setiadi dalam Taryadi (2007) mengemukakan bahwa ada beberapa persoalan dalam penerjemahan novel, di antaranya persoalan yang berkaitan dengan penerjemahan idiom dan gaya bahasa (misalnya, metafora, kiasan, personifikasi, aliterasi, dan asonansi). Berikut adalah beberapa contohnya:
1.    Penerjemahan Idiom
Tsu  : to kick the bucket
Tsa  : mampus
2.    Penerjemahan Metafora
     Tsu  : All the world’s a stage. – William Shakespeare
    Tsa  : Dunia ini panggung sandiwara.
3.    Penerjemahan Kiasan
Tsu  : My love is like a red, red rose. – Robert Burns
Tsa  : Kekasihku bagaikan sekuntum mawar merah.
4.    Penerjemahan Personifikasi
Tsu  : The wind cried in the dark.
Tsa  : Angin menangis di malam gelap.
5.    Penerjemahan Aliterasi
Tsu  : The dam ran dry during the drought.
Tsa  : Tanggul mengering selama musim kemarau.
6.    Penerjemahan Asonansi
Tsu  : The rain in Spain falls mainly in the plains.
Tsa  : Hujan di Spanyol sebagian besar turun di tanah datar.
Hardjoprawiro (2006: 35-43) menambahkan bahwa menerjemahkan novel berbeda dengan menerjemahkan teks biasa. Perbedaan itu terletak pada pemakaian berbagai ungkapan dan kiasan, yang hampir tidak dijumpai di dalam bahasa sains. Bahasa sastra bersifat konotatif dan banyak mengandung ungkapan idiomatik serta tuturan gaya bahasa, sedangkan bahasa ilmu (sains) bersifat denotatif dan mengandung bahyak istilah teknik. Hal tersebut diperkuat oleh Tianmin (2006: 15) yang mengatakan:
“Translation a novel is different from translating science. Science deals with universals; and literal translation may be welcomed by academics interested. The happenings in novels are semi-imaginary, being designed to move feelings of the community.”
Iser dalam Bassnett-McGuire (1991: 115) menambahkan bahwa menerjemahkan novel itu bukan sekedar menerjemahkan pernyataan yang tersurat dalam serangkaian kalimat, namun memahami tujuan apa yang tersirat di balik pernyataan itu, sehingga tidak sedikit para penerjemah melakukan kecerobohan dalam menerjemahkan novel, misalnya mereka melakukan:
(1)     kesalahan dalam menerjemahkan informasi,
(2)     penambahan interpretasi dari teks asli, dan
(3)     penginterpretasian dangkal atas beberapa hal penting yang saling berkaitan yang terkandung di dalam karya sastra dan pada akhirnya munculah sebuah hasil terjemahan novel yang menyimpang dari teks dan konteks aslinya.
Berkaitan dengan definisi penerjemahan itu sendiri, setiap pakar memiliki pendapat yang berbeda-beda. Larson (1984: 3) menyatakan: “Translation is transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language. This is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of a second language by way of semantic structure. It is meaning which is being transferred and must be held constant.”  Kemudian Newmark (1988: 5) mengemukakan: “Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text.” Selanjutnya Sperber and Wilson dalam Bell (1991:6) mengutarakan: “Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language.” Di samping itu Steiner dalam Choliludin (2006: 5) menjelaskan: “Translation can be seen as (co) generation of texts under specific constraints that is relative stability of some situational factors and, therefore, register, and classically, change of language and (context of) culture.”
Dari sekian definisi yang telah disebutkan di atas, dapat dikatakan bahwa penerjemahan merupakan sebuah aktivitas membaca pesan penulis teks sumber (Tsu) dan mereproduksi keseluruhan pesan tersebut ke dalam bahasa yang dipahami oleh penerima pesan atau pembaca teks sasaran, sehingga apa yang dimaksud oleh penulis teks sumber dapat diketahui oleh pembaca teks sasaran.

Penerjemahan Idiom dan Gaya Bahasa
a.    Idiom
Yang dimaksud dengan idiom dalam hal ini adalah sekelompok kata yang maknanya tidak dapat dicari dari makna kata-kata unsurnya. Berikut beberapa pendapat dari para pakar linguistik yang memberi komentar terhadap pengertian idiom.
Crystal (1985: 152) menyatakan bahwa idiom atau idiomatik adalah istilah yang digunakan dalam grammar dan lexicology yang merujuk kepada serangkaian kata yang terbatas secara semantis dan sintaksis, sehingga hanya berfungsi sebagai satuan tunggal (single unit). Misalnya ungkapan It’s raining cat and dogs tidak bisa diterjemahkan satu persatu karena ungkapan tersebut adalah ungkapan idiomatik (idiomatic expression) yang harus diterjemahkan secara idiomatik juga, sehingga terjemahannya menjadi ’Hujan lebat’. Richards (1992: 172) menambahkan bahwa idiom adalah sebuah ungkapan yang berfungsi sebagai satuan tunggal dan maknanya tidak bisa dipecah-pecah, contohnya She washed her hands of the matter = She refused to have anything more to do with the matter.
Wang (2009) menyatakan bahwa idiom harus diterjemahkan ke dalam idiom. Jika penerjemah tidak menemukan idiom yang tepat, maka dia harus mencari padanannya. Cara yang dapat digunakan adalah paraphrase dan menjaga rasa aslinya (the original flavor) atau mencari strategi penerjemahan lainnya. Jadi semua nilai estetika dalam novel asli harus diupayakan muncul dalam novel terjemahan. Selanjutnya Retmono (2009) menambahkan bahwa ungkapan  idiomatik sebaiknya diterjemahkan ke dalam ungkapan idiomatik juga, begitu pula metafora dan personifikasi. Penerjemah harus berupaya mencari padanannya atau menggantinya (replacing) dalam bahasa sasaran. Kemudian Huang dan Wang (2006: 2) mengemukakan bahwa ada tiga strategi yang dapat digunakan untuk menerjemahkan idiom. Pertama, menggunakan metode penerjemahan harfiah, yaitu mereproduksi isi dan gaya dari keseluruhan teks dengan tetap memperhatikan bentuk gaya bahasanya dan struktur atau pola kalimatnya. Kedua, menggunakan metode penerjemahan harfiah dengan kompensasi, yaitu menyampaikan makna harfiah sebuah idiom dalam teks sumber  dengan cara memperkenalkan informasi penjelas atau efek stilistik dalam teks sasaran). Ketiga, menggunakan metode penerjemahan bebas, yaitu menyampaikan makna dan ruh dari ungkapan idiomatik teks sumber (Tsu) tanpa melakukan reproduksi pola kalimat atau gaya bahasa yang sama, tetapi menafsirkannya dalam teks sasaran (Tsa) secara optimal.

b. Metafora
Holman dan Harmon (1992: 287) menyatakan bahwa metafora adalah analogi yang membandingkan antara satu objek dengan objek yang lainnya secara langsung atau dengan kata lain adalah majas yang mengungkapkan ungkapan secara langsung. Misalnya She is my hearth adalah contoh dari gaya bahasa metafora karena seseorang (she) dalam kalimat di atas disamakan dengan hearth = jantung hatiku. Bagaimana bisa seseorang sebagai manusia disamakan dengan jantung. Hal semacam ini membutuhkan kepiawaian seorang penerjemah untuk mencari padanan majas tersebut dengan tepat dalam Bsa. Ungkapan tersebut dapat diterjemahkan menjadi ’Dia belahan jantung hatiku.’ Perhatikan contoh-contoh di bawah ini.
1. Tsu  : He is a book-worm.
    Tsa   : Dia seorang kutu buku.
2. Tsu  : You are the sunshine of my life.
    Tsa   : Kau adalah pelita hidupku.
Penerjemahan metafora sangat berbeda dengan penerjemahan tuturan biasa. Metafora (metaphor) adalah bentuk bahasa sastra yang rumit dan sulit untuk diterjemahkan. Metafora mengandung ranah sasaran (target domain), yaitu konsep yang digambarkan atau sebagai bagian awal dan ranah sumber (source domain), yaitu konsep perbandingan atau analoginya. Menurut Richards dalam Saeed (1997: 302-303), konsep pertama disebut tenor sedangkan yang kedua disebut vehicle. Gaya bahasa metafora dapat diterjemahkan dengan beberapa prosedur dan pendekatan yang memungkinkan. Penerjemah harus mencari padanan metafora yang tepat dan mengungkapkannya dengan makna yang sepadan. Barańczak (1990) dalam Dobrzyfńska (1995: 599) mengemukakan tiga prosedur yang mungkin dilakukan dalam menerjemahkan metafora. Pertama, prosedur M→M, yaitu menggunakan metafora yang benar-benar sepadan dengan metafora aslinya (using an exact equivalent of the original metaphor). Kedua, prosedur M1→M2, yaitu mencari ungkapan metafora yang mengandung makna yang sama (looking for another metaphorical phrase which would express a similar sense). Ketiga, M→P, yaitu mengganti metafora asli (yang tidak dapat diterjemahkan) dengan literal paraphrase yang memungkinkan (replacing an untranslatable metaphor of the original with its approximate literal paraphrase).

c. Kiasan
Tamsil atau kiasan (simile) adalah majas yang mengungkapkan ungkapan secara tidak langsung atau perbandingan dua objek yang berbeda sama sekali dengan dasar kemiripan dalam satu hal (Holman dan Harmon, 1995: 445). Metafora memiliki ciri perbandingan dengan menggunakan kata kerja bantu BE saja, sedangkan kiasan (simile) ini menggunakan kata-kata penghubung like, as, such as, as if, seem. Misalnya, My house is like your house (=’Rumahku mirip rumahmu’). Moentaha (2006: 190) berpendapat bahwa tamsil atau kiasan ini adalah perbandingan antara dua objek yang berlainan kelas. Simile, sebagai sarana stilistis, digunakan untuk menekankan ciri-ciri tertentu dari objek yang satu dibandingkan dengan ciri-ciri tertentu dari objek yang lain yang berbeda kelasnya. Sehingga jika ada kiasan semacam berikut: The boy seems to be as clever as his mother (‘Anak lelaki itu sepandai ibunya), bukanlah tamsil atau kiasan (simile) tetapi perbandingan biasa (ordinary comparison) karena boy dan mother berasal dari kelas yang sama. Menurut dia, contoh simile yang tepat adalah He is as brave as a lion yang diterjemahkan menjadi ‘Dia seberani banteng’ atau ‘Dia seberani pendekar’. Kata ‘banteng’ dan ‘pendekar’ sangat cocok di telinga orang Indonesia daripada kata ‘singa’, karena ‘singa’ adalah binatang buas yang kesannya kurang tepat. Jadi perbandingan itu sendiri kadangkala harus ditujukan atau disesuaikan dengan konteks sosiokultural pengguna Bsa. 

d. Personifikasi
Frye (1985: 345) mengemukakan bahwa personifikasi adalah teknik memperlakukan segala sesuatu yang abstrak, benda atau binatang seperti manusia. Dalam bahasa Indonesia ada personifikasi ‘Saat kulihat rembulan, dia tersenyum kepadaku seakan-akan aku merayunya’. Jika diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Inggris menjadi When I saw the moon, she smiled at me as if I flattered her. Lin (2008: 471) menyatakan bahwa personifikasi merupakan proses pengaktualisasian benda selain manusia secara simbolis dan menganggap benda tersebut sebagai makhluk hidup. Berikut adalah beberapa contoh tentang personifikasi dan terjemahannya:
1.    The sun played peek-a-boo with the clouds (Matahari bermain cilukba dengan awan).
2.    The wind cried in the dark (Angin menangis di gelap malam).
3.    The lights blinked in the distance (Sinar berkedip dari kejauhan).
4.    The snow kissed my cheeks as it fell (Salju mencium pipiku ketika turun).
5.    The iron danced across the silken shirt (Setrikaan menari-nari di atas kemeja sutra).
6.     The leaves waved goodbye to the tree (Dedaunan itu melambaikan salam perpisahan pada sang pohon).
Xiaoshu dan Dongming (2003: 2) berpendapat bahwa  personifikasi dapat diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk tuturan yang sepadan dengan menggunakan metode penerjemahan semantik yang luwes berestetika (Newmark 1998), metode penerjemahan bebas yang mengutamakan isi dengan bentuk parafrasa yang panjang (Moentaha, 2006), metode penerjemahan idiomatik yang alamiah (Choliludin, 2006) atau metode penerjemahan komunikatif yang sangat memperhatikan makna kontekstual secara kebahasaan dan isi (Machali, 2009).

e. Aliterasi
Aliterasi adalah sarana stilistis yang mengulang bunyi konsonan yang sama di permulaan kata yang membentuk rangkaian kata yang mapan, biasanya berpasangan (Moentaha, 2006: 182). Aliterasi ini sering muncul dalam karya sastra baik puisi maupun prosa atau sering muncul dalam headline surat jabar sebagai ungkapan daya tarik bagi pembaca seperti Summer of Support, Quips and Quirks, Frenzy at Franconia, Face the Future. Bagaimana kasus aliterasi ini jika diterjemahkan?
Seorang penerjemah harus mampu menerjemahkan aliterasi menjadi aliterasi juga agar rasa indah dalam hasil terjemahannya (Tsa) sama dengan nilai estetika dalam Tsu, sekalipun ia harus mencari kata-kata yang sangat jauh padanannya atau bahkan tidak sepadan asalkan nuansa aliterasinya muncul dalam produk terjemahannya. Perhatikan contoh berikut:
Tsu      : ... between promise and performance.
Tsa 1    : ... antara janji dan pelaksanaannya. (tidak beraliterasi)
Tsa 2    : ... antara perkataan dan perbuatan. (beraliterasi)
Di samping itu ada contoh lain yang cukup baik, yaitu aliterasi ‘black beard’ yang diterjemahkan oleh penerjemah menjadi ‘janggut hitam’, sangat bagus jika diterjemahkan menjadi frase beraliterasi ‘janggut jelaga’. Jika penerjemah tidak menerjemahkan aliterasi ke dalam aliterasi dengan tetap mencari padanan yang paling dekat, maka efeknya akan lain dan hasil terjemahannya tidak “nyastra”, artinya hampa dari nilai sastra, karena teks sumbernya sendiri berbentuk karya sastra (Retmono, 2009).
Jika penerjemah tidak mampu menerjemahkan aliterasi ke dalam ungkapan bahasa sasaran yang lebih idiomatis, maka dia sebaiknya berupaya menerjemahkannya ke dalam bentuk aliterasi atau gaya bahasa lain yang memungkinkan dalam bahasa sasaran, asalkan memiliki equivalensi yang tepat. Demikian pula untuk kasus yang lainnya, penerjemah harus mencari padanan dalam bahasa sasaran dengan tetap memelihara unsur idiomatisnya (Wang, 2009).

f.    Penerjemahan Aliterasi
1)    Aliterasi dalam Tsu sebaiknya diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk aliterasi dalam Tsa.
2)    Aliterasi dapat diterjemahkan dengan metode harfiah dan mempertahankan pola bunyi konsonan yang sama pada setiap pasangan katanya.
3)    Aliterasi dapat diterjemahkan dengan teknik peminjaman murni atau alamiah, yaitu mengambil kata langsung dari bahasa sumber atau bunyi tiruan yang sejenis.
Penutup
Dari hal-hal yang sangat berguna di atas, terdapat pula hal-hal yang  kurang baik untuk digunakan, sehingga jika diterapkan akan berdampak buruk atau negatif terhadap proses penerjemahan dan produk yang dihasilkan. Hal-hal tersebut di atas di antaranya:
1.    Jika gaya bahasa metafora diterjemahkan secara literal, maka produknya bukan metafora. Hal ini tidak sejalan dengan pendapat Newmark (1988) yang menganjurkan bahwa metafora harus direproduksi ke dalam bentuk metafora atau kalau tidak bisa, maka diganti dengan tamsilan yang standar dalam bahasa sasaran atau menerjemahkan metafora ke dalam kiasan (simile).
2.    Jika gaya bahasa personifikasi diterjemahkan secara literal, maka hasilnya bukan personifikasi, padahal menurut Hu (2000), Xiaoshu dan Dongming (2003) bahwa gambaran artistic aslinya (the original artistic images) itu harus diwujudkan dalam bentuk personifikasi pula atau dihasilkan ulang dalam bentuk dan gaya bahasa yang sepadan dalam teks sasaran.
3.    Jika gaya bahasa kiasan diterjemahkan secara literal, maka produknya bukan kiasan. Kiasan merupakan salah satu gaya yang memiliki nilai estetik, stilistik, kultural dan makna ideologis (Shiyab dan Lynch, 2006), maka dari itu gaya bahasa ini harus tetap diupayakan untuk diterjemahkan dengan mencari padanannya dalam teks sasaran, walaupun hal tersebut sangat sulit dilakukan.
4.    Jika gaya bahasa aliterasi sama sekali tidak diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk aliterasi, hal ini dapat menghilangkan nilai sastra dan estetika yang seharusnya dipelihara dalam teks sasaran. Padahal Xiaoshu dan Dongming (2003) mengemukakan bahwa nada dan ruh dalam teks sumber harus mampu tereflesikan dalam teks sasaran. Artinya bahwa, aliterasi sebagai salah satu gaya bahasa yang memiliki keindahan dalam bentuk bunyi suara, yang mengandung kedalaman makna, perlu mendapat perhatian untuk tetap dipelihara bentuk dan pesannya dalam bahasa sasaran.

 Referensi

Translation Article 2


TEACHING TRANSLATION BY USING
A COOPERATIVE WORK PROCEDURE
(A Classroom Action Research at English Department of
Language and Arts Faculty, Semarang State University)

Dr. Rudi Hartono, M.Pd.
Semarang State University

Abstract

Translating Indonesian texts into English versions is a complicated task for students to do. It is shown by them when they do translation in the classroom. The problems usually come into their mind when they have to search equivalent words, appropriate grammar and accepted structure for target language they will produce. This scene can be observed when they do translating activity individually. They just do it themselves without doing collaboration with their friends. They only look up a dictionary and think of it themselves. In this situation a teacher just assigns the task and assesses it, no more to do. As a result, the translation products of the students are poor. Therefore, in order to improve the students’ translation ability and quality of translation, the teacher should teach the students translation by using a Cooperative Work Procedure (CWP) in their translation process. This procedure can lead the students be able to translate well and produce good translation products because they do translating process in a collaborative group.

Key words: teaching translation, translation, Source Language (SL), Target Language (TL), Indonesian texts, English texts, Cooperative Work Procedure (CWP)


1.       Introduction
The main problem of translation is finding out the equivalence (Larson, 1984). In relation to this statement, Nida (1969:12) defines that translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Sperber and Wilson in Bell (1991:6) state that translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. So, the equivalence is the main point that should be solved by all translators. Here the translators should be able to find out the closest and most natural meaning of words for the target language they aim.
The problem of equivalence itself can be felt when someone translates or teaches his or her students translation. The students are usually complaint that they are difficult to translate the text given to them by their teacher. The difficulties they often have are finding out the equivalent words, appropriate grammar and structure for their translation. This happened particularly when they translate Indonesian texts into the English ones.
Based on the pilot study done in the previous semester, for example, it is shown that almost students who took part in translation class had difficulties in the vocabulary, grammar, and structure equivalence.
Based on the chart above, it can be explained that vocabulary (45%) is the most difficult aspect in translation, while grammar (30%) is less difficult than vocabulary or more difficult than structure, and structure itself is the easiest of all. According to the observation and interview, the difficulty of vocabulary itself means that the students are not easy to find out equivalent words when they translate them into English. Then the difficulty of grammar equivalence means that they are difficult to find out appropriate grammar based the grammatical rules of English. Meanwhile, the difficulty of structure is that the students are difficult to determine accepted structure in English language.
This situation almost happened every semester, particularly in the even semester on which the students took translation subject that obliged them to translate the texts from Indonesian into English. The main factor that made them difficult to translate was translating the texts by keeping conventional procedure. In the translation process each student did translating activity individually. Practically the students never asked one another. They just looked up their dictionary and thought of everything themselves. The teacher himself did not monitor or lead them to do the best. He just assigned them and assessed their translation products. As a result, the students’ translation quality was poor.
 This atmosphere is not good to leave behind, so that there should be a solution to overcome those problems. The alternative solution to eliminate the problems above is applying a Cooperative Work Procedure (CWP) in teaching translation. This procedure is not a new one but it will be effective to lead the students to become a good translator. It means that through this procedure they will be trained to translate the texts in group and managed to produce a better quality of translation.
In relation to this problem, Gerding-Salas (2000) says that a good translator should define some essential starting-points for the approximation to a text to be translated, such as the author of the text, the aim of the text, the readership, and the standard to be used, for which it is important to identify and categorize the author, the message, the kind of discourse, the translator and the readership. All these points are primary requirements for those who want to be a good translator. So the procedure that can send the students to this goal is applying Cooperative Work Procedure (CWP).
According to Gerding-Salas (2000) the Cooperative Work Procedure can send the translator students to be 1) a translator who is aware that misunderstanding of the text will decrease translation quality, so they have to use effective strategies in translating process, for examples, underlining words, detecting translation difficulties, and searching appropriate equivalences contextually, 2) a translator who knows that the meaning is not only delivered or transferred through words but also through diagrams, pictures, and charts, and 3) a translator who is able to understand deeply the essence of meaning, taste, register, style, etc and to map the format of source text, such as references, paragraphs, text dints, columns, tables, and else by paying attention to target text units. This procedure can motivate translator students to be productive translators and to produce a better quality of translation.
In addition Benny Hoed (2003) and Xianbin (2005) comment that a translator should be able to transfer the message from source language into target language. He or she has a central role in translation process and has to decide to choose whether he wants to use foreignization ideology or domestication ideology. It means that here the translator should be consistent on his or her choice whether he or she tends to the source text or the target text. This consistency is also a problem for him or her.
The followings are the steps of a Cooperative Works Procedure suggested by Gerding-Salas (2000):
1.        The teacher makes a selection of the material to be translated. Texts must be chosen according to previously defined objectives for translation practice, taking into account the degree of difficulty of the texts (semantic, cultural, stylistic, etc.), the topic or the specific knowledge area (science and technology; social, institutional, economic and/or political topics; and literary or philosophical works), the translation problems to be solved, and so on.
2.        After browsing through the text (scan reading and/or skim reading), the students, assisted by their teacher, should identify the source, the norm, the type of text, the register, the style and the readership of the text selected. It is a kind of game of the imagination in which the text is real but the client and her/his needs are imaginary.
 3.        The students should read the whole text at least twice: The first reading will be comprehensive and general, to become acquainted with the topic and to understand the original, always bearing in mind that meaning is context-determined.
4.        The second reading must be a "deep" reading, placing emphasis on items where translation problems may appear. In other words, this is what I have called "reading with translation intention," i.e. doing pre-editing and assessing the quality of the writing (Reminder: Not all texts are well written). In my opinion, when translating into the TL, if the translator detects mistakes (usually due to misprints) in the original text, s/he should be entitled to amend them in her/his version if too obvious or else consult the client or an expert in case of doubt. When doing this "reading with translation intention," students should first underline unknown terms and then they should mentally confront potential translation difficulties in the text with suitable translation procedures.
5.        The teacher then divides the text into as many segments as students in the group. Depending on the degree of difficulty and the length of the text, these segments may be paragraphs, columns, pages or even whole chapters. Then, each student is assigned a fair portion of the text. The segment distribution order should rotate so that a different student begins a translation unit every time.
6.        If the topic is already quite familiar to the students, they do a preliminary translation. As this is the first approach to the text, it will probably lack naturalness, since students tend to transfer SL units of translation to TL units of translation ("one-to-one translation," Newmark, 1995a). This first approach can often be made orally and suggested annotations may be written in the margins.
7.        If the topic is completely unknown to the students, they should consult complementary literature. In other words, before beginning the transfer process, they should resort to various documentation sources, especially parallel texts (those which are similar in nature and style) in the language of the original. This allows them to achieve a deeper understanding of the topic under study.
8.        Once the "one-to-one" version is accomplished, the students do a second version of their own translation—this time a written draft—handling the most suitable translation strategies and procedures and being faithful in the transfer of ideas.
9.        With the original text in front of her/him and being careful to follow the same correlative order of the SL text, each student reads out her/his own version of the translated text, making the necessary pauses between sentences.
10.    The students and the teacher follow the reading of each text attentively. As a monitoring activity, everybody should feel free to stop the reading at the end of a given sentence and have the reading of the segment repeated, when the situation warrants comments, suggestions, questions, contributions, etc. The students have to "defend" their work against criticism.
11.    During this procedure, the students and the teacher need to set up all necessary conventions with regard to the homogeneity of the terms and the coherence and cohesion of the final version.
12.    As Newmark states, "translation is for discussion" (Newmark, 1995b). Students should then be encouraged to take notes and discuss the (in)convenience of the contributions and comments arising from this analytical reading of each one of the different versions proposed.
13.    As a metacognitive activity, the students, assisted by the teacher, analyze the translation strategies and procedures used, and discuss the reasons taken into account in the choice of each analyzed criterion: "The ability to discuss translations in an objective way is central to a translator's competence", (Kussmaul, 1995).
14.    The students hand in the final version of their revised and post-edited segments, which have already been amended in the light of the whole text. The work must be typed, double-spaced and paged according to the original.
15.    The teacher makes a final revision (second post-edit), gives formative evaluation and makes comments, emphasizes findings, "happy" solutions and creative acts, on the one hand, and analyzes failures and weaknesses in the process, on the other.

2.       The Study

The present study aims to find support from empirical evidence to see if a Cooperative Work Procedure is effective in teaching translation at the sixth semester university students of English department.
This study employs a classroom action research (CAR) proposed by Elliott that has popular stages: Plan, Action, Observation, and Reflection (MacIsaac, 1996:2). This research was conducted in one class consisted of 20 students that had specific problems in translation. They faced the problems of vocabulary, grammar, and structure when they did translation individually. The pre-test was given as a starting point that informed the condition before the research. Then the students were interviewed in order to know the information of their problems in translating texts individually from Indonesian into English. To complete the information taken from the students, the observation was done in the classroom.
Having had the information from three sources: pre-test, in-depth interview, and observation, the classroom action research was conducted then. The cooperative work procedure was planned to do. Then the action was conducted by dividing the class into five small groups of four. Each group was given a task of translation. They had to translate an Indonesian article into English. In their group the students translated the text together cooperatively. They did discussion and collaboration. The teacher controlled the class and monitored the groups. He instructed and sometimes solved the students’ problems during translating the text. It can be said that in this situation students and students, teacher and students do a good interaction and communication. During the students translated the text, the teacher observed the situation and jotted down the activity done by the students in the classroom. He also took photographs as the facts of the action and observation. After three fore stages were conducted, the teacher did reflection by doing interviews to all groups of students and giving them questionnaires to answer. All information was obtained as the data of research to support findings and the result of the research.

3.       The Findings and Discussion
Based on the pre-test of translation, the students’ translation scores were fair. Almost the students got score 60 that indicates not good quality of translation. They did some distortions in meaning, unacceptable grammar, rigid structures, and non-standard terms. Below is the table of pre-test result of translation test from Indonesian language into English.
Tabel 1 The Result of Translation Pre-test
No.
Partisipant’s Code
Pre-test Score
1.                   
Code 1
61
2.                   
Code 2
59
3.                   
Code 3
57
4.                   
Code 4
63
5.                   
Code 5
60
6.                   
Code 6
60
7.                   
Code 7
62
8.                   
Code 8
58
9.                   
Code 9
63
10.               
Code 10
57
11.               
Code 11
60
12.               
Code 12
60
13.               
Code 13
68
14.               
Code 14
52
15.               
Code 15
58
16.               
Code 16
62
17.               
Code 17
65
18.               
Code 18
55
19.               
Code 19
60
20.               
Code 20
60
Average Score
60

According to the initial interview before the research was conducted, the students responded some questions given and said that doing an individual translation project or before applying a cooperative work procedure (CWP), the translation process was slow, there were not evaluation and revision of translation, translation task was a heavy burden, and the translation product was not good.
Then based on the observation before the CWP was conducted, the students just did their translation project themselves and only looked a dictionary, while the teacher just assigned and assessed their translation product. Later, according to the questionnaires given, they commented that before the CWP application they really faced the problems of vocabulary, grammar, and structure in translation process.
On the contrary what happened after the CWP was conducted? All progressed well and seemed successful. For examples, the students’ translation scores increased from 60 to 77.80 and the atmosphere of translation process changed extremely, from individual activity to group activity. Here the students can do discussion and share the problems one another interactively and the teacher helps them communicatively. Automatically their translation quality improved well. All students feel that the last condition is better than the previous one. Some data in the tables below can be seen and compared, as the facts that the CWP is effective to use in teaching translation as a way of improving the students’ translation quality. Those data are taken from pre-test and post test and also from interview and observation.
The following is the comparison of the translation result between pre-test and post test:
Tabel 2 The Progress of Translation Result
No.
Individual Participant
Group Participant
Pre-test
Score
Post-test
Score
Progress
Score
1.             
Kode 1
I
61
76
16
2.             
Kode 2
59
3.             
Kode 3
57
4.             
Kode 4
63
5.             
Kode 5
II
60
75
15
6.             
Kode 6
60
7.             
Kode 7
62
8.             
Kode 8
58
9.             
Kode 9
III
63
78
18
10.         
Kode 10
57
11.         
Kode 11
60
12.         
Kode 12
60
13.         
Kode 13
IV
68
80
20
14.         
Kode 14
52
15.         
Kode 15
58
16.         
Kode 16
62
17.         
Kode 17
V
65
80
20
18.         
Kode 18
55
19.         
Kode 19
60
20.         
Kode 20
60
Average of Progress Score
17.80